The Australian Magpie (Cracticus tibicen) is a medium-sized black and white passerine bird native to Australia and southern New Guinea. It is closely related to the butcherbirds and currawongs of the family Artamidae. At one stage, the Australian Magpie was considered to be three separate species, although zones of hybridization between forms reinforced the idea of there being one species with several subspecies, nine of which are now recognized. The adult Australian Magpie is a fairly robust bird ranging from 37"?43 cm (14.5"?17 in) in length, with distinctive black and white plumage, red eyes and a solid wedge-shaped bluish-white and black bill. The male and female are similar in appearance, and can be distinguished by differences in back markings.

The Australian Magpie is omnivorous, with the bulk of its varied diet made up of invertebrates. It is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range. Common and widespread, it has adapted well to human habitation and is a familiar bird of parks, gardens and farmland. Familiar birds around Australia and New Guinea, magpies were introduced into New Zealand in the 1860s and are proving to be a pest by displacing native birds. Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Fiji, but these have not proved to be invasive.

Spring in Australia is magpie season, when a small minority of breeding magpies (almost always male birds) around the country become aggressive and swoop and attack those who approach their nests, especially bike riders. Birds are also commonly fed by households around the country and it is the mascot of several famous Australian sporting teams.

Taxonomy

The Australian Magpie was originally described by English ornithologist John Latham in 1802 as Coracias tibicen, the type specimen collected in the Port Jackson region. Its specific name derived from the Latin tibicen "flute-player" or "piper" in reference to the bird's melodious call. An early recorded vernacular name is Piping Roller, written on a painting by Thomas Watling, one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter, sometime between 1788 and 1792. Tarra-won-nang, or djarrawunang, wibung, and marriyang were names used by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin. Booroogong and garoogong were Wiradjuri words, and carrak was a Jardwadjali term from Victoria. Among the Kamilaroi, it is burrugaabu, galalu,or guluu. It was known as Warndurla among the Yindjibarndi people of the central and western Pilbara. Other names used include Piping Crow-shrike, Piper, Maggie, Flute-bird and Organ-bird. The term Bell-magpie was proposed to help distinguish it from the European Magpie but has failed to gain wide acceptance. Murray Magpie is a name which refers to the similarly-plumaged Magpie-lark.

The bird was named for its similarity in colouration to the European Magpie; it was a common practice for early settlers to name plants and animals after European counterparts. However, the European Magpie is a member of the Corvidae, while the Australian Magpie is classified in the Artamidae family (despite being a member of a broad corvid lineage). The Australian Magpie's affinities with butcherbirds and currawongs were recognised early on and the three genera were placed in the family Cracticidae in 1914 by ornithologist John Albert Leach after he had studied their musculature. Ornithologists Charles Sibley and Jon Ahlquist recognised the close relationship between woodswallows and the butcherbirds in 1985, and placed them in a Cracticini clade, now the family Artamidae.

For many years, the Australian Magpie was placed in its own genus Gymnorhina, however several authorities, initially Storr in 1952 and including Christidis and Boles in the latest 2008 official checklist, place it in the butcherbird genus Cracticus, giving rise to its current binomial name; they argue that its adaptation to ground-living is not enough to consider it separately.

Three races, tibicen, hypoleuca and dorsalis, were for many years considered to be three separate species. They were later noted to hybridise readily where their territories crossed, with hybrid grey or striped-backed magpies being quite common. This resulted in them being reclassified as one species by Ford in 1969, with most recent authors following suit.

Subspecies Male (left) and female (right) Tasmanian Magpies Male of ssp. tyrannica, showing prominent white back Western Magpie female. The plumage at the nape is a starker white in males.

There are currently thought to be nine subspecies of the Australian Magpie; there is a large zone of overlap with intermediate forms between the taxa. There is a tendency for birds to become larger with increasing latitude; the southern subspecies are larger, although the Tasmanian form is small. The original form known as the Black-backed Magpie and classified as Gymnorhina tibicen has been split into four black-backed races:

• C. tibicen tibicen, the nominate form, is a large subspecies found in southeastern Queensland, from the vicinity of Moreton Bay through eastern New South Wales to Moruya, New South Wales almost to the Victorian border. It is coastal or near-coastal and keeps east of the Great Dividing Range.

• C. tibicen terraereginae, found from Cape York and the Gulf Country southwards across Queensland to the coast between Halifax Bay in the north and south to Mary River, and central and western New South Wales and into northern South Australia, is a small to medium-sized subspecies. The plumage is the same as that of subspecies tibicen, although the females have a shorter black tip to the tail. The wings and tarsus are shorter and the bill proportionally longer. It was originally described by Gregory Mathews in 1912, its subspecies name a Latin translation, terra "land" reginae "queen's" of "Queensland". Hybridisation with large white-backed subspecies tyrannica occurs in northern Victoria and southeastern New South Wales; intermediate forms have black bands of varying sizes in white backed area. Three-way hybridization occurs between Bega and Batemans Bay on the New South Wales south coast.

• C. tibicen eylandtensis, the Top End Magpie, is found from the Kimberley in northern Western Australia, across the Northern Territory through Arnhem Land and Groote Eylandt and into the Gulf Country. It is a small subspecies with a long thinner bill, with birds of Groote Eylandt possibly even smaller than mainland birds. It has a narrow black terminal tailband, and a narrow black band; the male has a large white nape, the female pale grey. This form was initially described by H. L. White in 1922. It intergrades with subspecies terraereginae southeast of the Gulf of Carpentaria.

• C. tibicen longirostris, the Long-billed Magpie, is found across northern Western Australia, from Shark Bay into the Pilbara. Named in 1903 by Alex Milligan, it is a medium-sized subspecies with a long thin bill. Milligan speculated the bill may have been adapted for the local conditions, slim fare meaning the birds had to pick at dangerous scorpions and spiders. There is a broad area of hybridization with the western dorsalis in southern central Western Australia from Shark Bay south to the Murchison River and east to the Great Victoria Desert.

The White-backed Magpie, originally described as G. hypoleuca by John Gould in 1837, has also been split into races:

• C. tibicen tyrannica, a very large white backed form found from Twofold Bay on the New South Wales far south coast, across southern Victoria south of the Great Dividing Range through to the Coorong in southeastern South Australia. It was first described by Schodde and Mason in 1999. It has a broad black tail band.

• C. tibicen telonocua, found from Cowell south into the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas in southern South Australia, as well as the southwestern Gawler Ranges. Described by Schodde and Mason in 1999, its subspecific name is an anagram of leuconota "white-backed". It is very similar to tyrannica, differing in having a shorter wing and being lighter and smaller overall. The bill is relatively short compared with other magpie subspecies. Intermediate forms are found in the Mount Lofty Ranges and on Kangaroo Island.

• C. tibicen hypoleuca now refers to a small white-backed subspecies with a short compact bill and short wings, found on King and Flinders Islands, as well as Tasmania.

• The Western Magpie, G. tibicen dorsalis was originally described as a separate species by A. J. Campbell in 1895 and is found in the fertile south-west corner of Western Australia. The adult male has a white back and most closely resembles subspecies telonocua, though it is a little larger with a longer bill and the black tip of its tail plumage is narrower. The female is unusual in that it has a scalloped black or brownish-black mantle and back; the dark feathers there are edged with white. This area appears a more uniform black as the plumage ages and the edges are worn away. Both sexes have black thighs.

• The New Guinean Magpie, C. tibicen papuana, is a little-known subspecies found in southern New Guinea. The adult male has a mostly white back with a narrow black stripe, and the female a blackish back; the black feathers here are tipped with white similar to subspecies dorsalis. It has a long deep bill resembling that of subspecies longirostris.

Description Immature white-backed female, with dark eyes, in Dromana, Victoria

The adult magpie is a fairly solid, well-built bird ranging from 37"?43 cm (14.5"?17 in) in length with a 65"?85 cm (26"?33 in) wingspan, and weighing 220"?350 g (8"?12 oz). Its robust wedge-shaped bill bears a hook at the end, and is a bluish-white colour bordered with black. The black legs are long and strong. The plumage is pure glossy black and white; males and females of all subspecies have black heads, wings and underparts with white napes, and shoulders. Tails have a black terminal band. Mature magpies have dull red eyes, in contrast to the yellow eyes of currawongs and white eyes of Australian ravens and crows.

The main difference between the subspecies lies in the "saddle" markings on the back below the nape, which is white in all forms. Black-backed subspecies have a black saddle and white nape, which may be tinged pale grey. White-backed subspecies have a wholly white nape and saddle, which is tinged grey in females. The male Western subspecies dorsalis is also white-backed, but the equivalent area in the female is scalloped black.

Juveniles' plumage contains lighter greys and browns amidst the starker blacks and whites; two or three year old birds of both sexes closely resemble and are difficult to distinguish from adult females. Immature birds have dark brownish eyes until around two years of age.

Well-known and easily recognisable, the Australian Magpie is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The Pied Butcherbird does have a similar build and plumage, but has white underparts unlike the former species' black underparts. The Magpie-lark is a much smaller and more delicate bird with complex and very different banded black and white plumage. Currawong species have predominantly dark plumage and heavier bills.

Australian Magpies generally live to around 25 years of age, though ages of up to 30 years have been recorded.

Vocalisations

One of Australia's most highly-regarded songbirds, the Australian Magpie has wide variety of calls, many of which are complex with many elements. Pitch may vary over four octaves. It may mimic over 35 species of native and introduced bird species, as well as dogs and horses. Its complex musical, warbling call is one of the most familiar Australian bird sounds. In Denis Glover's poem The Magpies, the mature magpie's call is described as quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle.

When alone, a magpie may make a quiet musical warbling; these complex melodious warbles or subsongs are pitched at 2"?4 KHz and do not carry for long distances. These songs have been recorded up to 70 minutes in duration and are more frequent after the end of the breeding season. Pairs of magpies often take up a loud carolling call to advertise or defend their territory; one bird initiates the call with the other joining in. Often preceded by warbling, carolling is pitched between 6"?8 kHz and has 4"?5 elements with slurring indistinct noise in between. Birds will adopt a specific posture by tilting their heads back, expanding their chests, and moving their wings backwards.

Fledgling and juvenile magpies emit a repeated short and loud (80 dB), high-pitched (8 kHz) begging call. Magpies may indulge in beak-clapping to warn other species of birds. They employ several high pitched (8"?10 kHz) alarm or rallying calls when intruders or threats are spotted. Distinct calls have been recorded for eagles and monitor lizards.

Distribution and habitat

The Australian Magpie is found in the Trans-Fly region of southern New Guinea, between the Oriomo River and the Princess Mariane Strait, and across most of Australia, bar the tip of Cape York, the Gibson and Great Sandy Deserts, and southwest of Tasmania.

Birds taken mainly from Tasmania and Victoria were introduced into New Zealand by local Acclimatisation Societies of Otago and Canterbury in the 1860s, with the Wellington Acclimatisation Society releasing 260 birds in 1874. White-backed forms are spread on both the North and eastern South Island, while Black-backed forms are found in the Hawke's Bay region. Magpies were introduced into New Zealand in an attempt to control agricultural pests and were therefore a protected species until 1951. Magpies are thought to affect native New Zealand bird populations such as the tui and kerer?, sometimes raiding nests for eggs and nestlings. Studies by Waikato University have cast doubt on the effect of Magpies on native bird populations. Much blame on the Magpie as a predator in the past has been anecdotal only.

Introductions also occurred in the Solomon Islands and Sri Lanka, although the species has failed to become established. It has become established in western Taveuni in Fiji, however.

The Australian Magpie prefers open areas such as grassland, fields and residential areas such as parks, gardens, golf courses, and streets, with scattered trees or forest nearby. Birds nest and shelter in trees but forage mainly on the ground in these open areas. It has also been recorded in mature pine plantations; birds only occupy rainforest and wet sclerophyll forest in the vicinity of cleared areas.

In general, evidence suggests the range and population of the Australian Magpie has increased with land-clearing, although local declines in Queensland due to a 1902 drought, and in Tasmania in the 1930s have been noted; the cause for the latter is unclear but rabbit baiting, pine tree removal, and spread of the Masked Lapwing (Vanellus miles) have been implicated.

Behaviour female, subsp. tyrannica, in flight

The Australian Magpie is almost exclusively diurnal, although it may call into the night, like all members of the Artamidae. Natural predators of magpies include various species of monitor lizard and the Barking Owl. Birds have also been killed on roads or electrocuted by powerlines, or poisoned after killing and eating House Sparrows or mice, rats or rabbits targeted with baiting. The Australian Raven may take nestlings left unattended.

On the ground, the Australian Magpie moves around by walking, and is the only member of the Artamidae to do so; woodswallows, butcherbirds and currawongs all tend to hop with legs parallel. It has a short femur (thigh bone), and long lower leg below the knee; this is suited for walking rather than running, although birds can run in short bursts when hunting prey.

It is generally sedentary and territorial throughout its range; magpies may live in groups occupying a territory, or in flocks or fringe groups. A group may occupy and defend the same territory for many years. Much energy is spent defending a territory from intruders, particularly other magpies, and different behaviours are seen with different opponents. The sight of a raptor results in a rallying call by sentinel birds and subsequent coordinated mobbing of the intruder. Magpies place themselves either side of the bird of prey so that it will be attacked from behind should it strike a defender, and harass and drive the raptor to some distance beyond the territory.

A group will use carolling as a signal to advertise ownership and warn off other magpies. In the negotiating display, the one or two dominant magpies parade along the border of the defended territory while the rest of the group stand back a little and look on. The leaders may fluff their feathers or caroll repeatedly. In a group strength display, employed if both the opposing and defending groups are of roughly equal numbers, all magpies will fly and form a row at the border of the territory. The defending group may also resort to an aerial display where the dominant magpies, or sometimes the whole group, swoop and dive while calling to warn an intruding magpie's group.

A wide variety of displays are seen; aggressive behaviours outnumber pro-social ones. Crouching low and uttering quiet begging calls are common signs of submission. The manus flutter is a submissive display where a magpie will flutter its primary feathers in its wings. A magpie may also fall, roll over on its back and expose its underparts; this is often seen in juvenile birds. Birds may fluff up their flank feathers as an aggressive display or preceding an attack.

Feeding

The Australian Magpie is omnivorous, eating various items located at or near ground level including invertebrates such as earthworms, millipedes, snails, spiders and scorpions as well as a wide variety of insects"?cockroaches, ants, beetles, moths and caterpillars and other larvae. Skinks, frogs, mice and other small animals as well as grain, tubers, figs and walnuts have also been noted as components of their diet. The Australian Magpie is predominantly a ground feeder, pacing open areas methodically searching for insects and their larvae. One study showed birds were able to find scarab beetle larvae by sound or vibration. Birds use their bills to probe into the earth or otherwise overturn debris in search of food. Smaller prey are swallowed whole, although magpies rub off the stingers of bees and wasps before swallowing. Birds will also take handouts from humans and will often venture into open houses to look for food.

Breeding Western Magpie female (note scalloped back) collecting nesting material

Magpies have a long breeding season which varies in different parts of the country; in northern parts of Australia they will breed between June and September, but not commence until August or September in cooler regions, and may continue until January in some alpine areas. The nest is a bowl-shaped structure made of sticks and lined with softer material such as grass and bark. Near human habitation, synthetic material may be incorporated. Nests are built exclusively by females and generally placed high up in a tree fork, often in an exposed position. The trees used are most commonly eucalypts, although a variety of other native trees as well as introduced pine, Crataegus, and elm have been recorded. Other bird species, such as the Yellow-rumped Thornbill (Acanthiza chrysorrhoa), Willie Wagtail (Rhipidura leucophrys), Southern Whiteface (Aphelocephala leucopsis), and (less commonly) Noisy Miner (Manorina melanocephala), often nest in the same tree as the magpie. The first two species may even locate their nest directly beneath a magpie nest, while the Striated Pardalote (Pardalotus striatus) has been known to make a burrow in the magpie nest itself. These incursions are all tolerated by the magpies.

The Australian Magpie produces a clutch of two to five light blue or greenish eggs, which are oval in shape and about 27 x 38 mm (1 x 1.5 in). The chicks hatch synchronously around 20 days after incubation begins; like all passerines, the chicks are altricial"?they are born pink, naked, and blind with large feet, a short broad beak and a bright red throat. Their eyes are fully open at around 10 days. Chicks develop fine downy feathers on their head, back and wings in the first week, and pinfeathers in the second week. The black and white coloration is noticeable from an early stage. Nestlings are fed exclusively by the female, though the male magpie will feed his partner. The Australian Magpie is known to engage in cooperative breeding, and helper birds will assist in feeding and raising young. This does vary from region to region, and with the size of the group"?the behaviour is rare or nonexistent in pairs or small groups.

Juvenile magpies begin foraging on their own three weeks after leaving the nest, and mostly feeding themselves by six months old. However, some birds continue begging for food until eight or nine months of age. Birds reach adult size by their first birthday.

The Channel-billed Cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) is a notable brood parasite in eastern Australia; magpies will raise cuckoo young, which eventually outcompete the magpie nestlings.

Relationship with humans

Swooping A sign warning of magpie swooping

Magpies are ubiquitous in urban areas all over Australia, and have become accustomed to coexisting with people. A small percentage of birds become highly aggressive during breeding season from late August to early October, and will swoop and sometimes attack passersby. The percentage has been difficult to estimate but is significantly less than 9%. Almost all attacking birds (around 99%) are male, and they are generally known to attack pedestrians at around 50 m (150 ft) from their nest, and cyclists at around 100 m (300 ft). Attacks begin as the eggs hatch, increase in frequency and severity as the chicks grow, and tail off as the chicks leave the nest.

These magpies may engage in an escalating series of behaviours to drive off intruders. Least threatening are alarm calls and distant swoops, where birds fly within several metres from behind and perch nearby. Next in intensity are close swoops, where a magpie will swoop in from behind or the side and audibly "snap" their beaks or even peck or bite at the face, neck, ears or eyes. More rarely, a bird may dive-bomb and strike the intruder's (usually a cyclist's) head with its chest. A magpie may rarely attack by landing on the ground in front of a person and lurching up and landing on the victim's chest and peck at the face and eyes.

Magpie attacks can cause injuries, typically wounds to the head and particularly the eyes; the risks are of a detached retina and bacterial infection from a beak used to fossick in the ground. Being unexpectedly swooped while cycling is not uncommon, and can result in loss of control of the bicycle, which may cause injury. A 13-year-old boy died from tetanus, apparently from a magpie injury, in northern New South Wales in 1946.

A Magpie defending its territory from a Brown Goshawk

If it is necessary to walk near the nest, wearing a broad-brimmed or legionnaires' hat or using an umbrella will deter attacking birds; beanies and bicycle helmets are of little value as birds attack the sides of the head and neck. Eyes painted on hats or helmets will deter attacks on pedestrians but not cyclists. Attaching a long pole with a flag to a bike is an effective deterrent.. As of 2008, the use of cable ties on helmets has become common and appears to be effective. Magpies prefer to swoop at the back of the head; therefore, keeping the magpie in sight at all times can discourage the bird. Using a basic disguise to fool the magpie as to where a person is looking (such as painting eyes on a hat, or wearing sunglasses on the back of the head) can also prove effective. In some cases, magpies may become extremely aggressive and attack people's faces; it may become very difficult to deter these birds from swooping. Once attacked, shouting aggressively and waving one's arms at the bird should deter a second attack. If a bird presents a serious nuisance the local authorities may arrange for that bird to be legally destroyed, or more commonly, to be caught and translocated to an unpopulated area. Magpies have to be moved some distance as almost all are able to find their way home from distances of less than 25 km. Removing the nest is of no use as birds will simply breed again and possibly be more aggressive the second time around.

Magpies are a protected native species in Australia, so it is illegal to kill or harm them. However, this protection is removed in some Australian States if a magpie attacks a human, allowing for the bird to be destroyed if considered particularly aggressive (for an example, see section 54 of the South Australian National Parks and Wildlife Act). It is claimed by some that swooping can be prevented by hand-feeding magpies. The idea is that humans thereby appear less of a threat to the nesting birds. This has not been studied systematically, although there are reports of its success.

Cultural references

The Yindjibarndi people of the Pilbara used the bird as a signal for sunrise, frightening them awake with its call. They were also familiar with its highly territorial nature, and it features in a song in the Burndud.

Under the name Piping Shrike, the White-backed Magpie was declared the official emblem of the Government of South Australia in 1901 by Governor Tennyson, and has featured on the South Australian flag since 1904. The call has been portrayed in Denis Glover's poem The Magpies, with the refrain Quardle oodle ardle wardle doodle"?one of the most famous lines in New Zealand poetry"?and in the children's book Waddle Giggle Gargle by Pamela Allen.

The magpie is a commonly used emblem of sporting teams in Australia, and its brash, cocky attitude has been likened to the Australian psyche. The Collingwood Football Club adopted the Magpie from a visiting South Australian representative team in 1892, Port Adelaide Magpies; other examples include Brisbane's Souths Logan Magpies, and Sydney's Western Suburbs Magpies. Disputes over the first club to adopt the magpie emblem have been heated at times. Another club, Glenorchy Football Club of Tasmania, has had its own problems in keeping the magpie strip after being forced to change when in the same leagues as yet another club (Claremont Magpies) with the magpie name and emblem. The popular New Zealand comic Footrot Flats features a magpie character by the name of Pew.

Notes

1. ^ Simpson, D.P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London: Cassell Ltd.. pp. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0. 
2. ^ a b c d Higgins et al., p. 579
3. ^ a b The Natural History Museum, London (2007). ""Piping Roller", native name "Tarra-won-nang"". First Fleet Artwork Collection. The Natural History Museum, London. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/nature-online/first-fleet/nathist.dsml?sa=1&lastDisp=gall&notes=true&beginIndex=210&enlarged=true%3fimage&desc=true&. Retrieved on 2007-09-21. 
4. ^ a b Kaplan, p. 3
5. ^ Troy, Jakelin (1993). The Sydney language. Canberra: Jakelin Troy. p. 53. ISBN 0-646-11015-2. 
6. ^ Wesson S (2001) (PDF). Aboriginal flora and fauna names of Victoria: As extracted from early surveyors' reports. Melbourne: Victorian Aboriginal Corporation for Languages. ISBN 9-9579360-0-1. http://www.vaclang.org.au/admin%5Cfile%5Ccontent9%5Cc7%5Cff.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-09-21. 
7. ^ Austin P, Nathan D (1998). "Kamilaroi/Gamilaraay Dictionary : B-D". The Coombsweb: Kamilaroi/Gamilaraay Dictionary. Australian National University. http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/AborigPages/LANG/GAMDICT/GAM_BD.HTM. Retrieved on 2008-10-25. 
8. ^ Austin P, Nathan D (1998). "Kamilaroi/Gamilaraay Dictionary : G". The Coombsweb: Kamilaroi/Gamilaraay Dictionary. Australian National University. http://coombs.anu.edu.au/WWWVLPages/AborigPages/LANG/GAMDICT/GAM_G.HTM. Retrieved on 2008-10-25. 
9. ^ a b Juluwarlu Aboriginal Corporation (2005). Garruragan: Yindjibarndi Fauna. Juluwarlu Aboriginal Corporation. p. 33. ISBN 1875-946-543. 
10. ^ Jones, p. 12
11. ^ Leach, John Albert (1914). "The myology of the Bell-Magpie (Strepera) and its position in classification". Emu 14 (1): 2"?38. 
12. ^ Sibley CG, Ahlquist JE (1985). "(fulltext) The phylogeny and classification of Australo-Papuan passerine birds". Emu 85 (1): 1-14. http://www.publish.csiro.au/?act=view_file&file_id=MU9850001.pdf (fulltext). Retrieved on 2009-04-15. 
13. ^ a b c Christidis L, Boles WE (2008). Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds. Canberra: CSIRO Publishing. p. 196. ISBN 9780643065116. 
14. ^ Serventy DL (1953). "Some speciation problems in Australian birds: with particular reference to the relations between Bassian and Eyrean ?species-pairs?". Emu 53 (2): 131"?45. doi:10.1071/MU953131. 
15. ^ Ford J (1969). The distribution and status of the Australian Magpie in Western Australia. 68. pp. 278"?79. doi:10.1071/MU968278a. 
16. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 622
17. ^ Higgins et al., p. 620
18. ^ Higgins et al., p. 621
19. ^ a b c d e f g h i Higgins et al., p. 580
20. ^ a b c Higgins et al., p. 624
21. ^ a b Kaplan, p. 7
22. ^ Kaplan, p. 6
23. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 623
24. ^ Black A (1986). (abstract) The Taxonomic Affinity of the New Guinean Magpie Gymnorhina tibicen papuana. 86. pp. 65"?70. doi:10.1071/MU9860065. http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/MU9860065.htm (abstract). Retrieved on 2009-04-07. 
25. ^ a b c Higgins et al., p. 618
26. ^ a b c Higgins et al., p. 581
27. ^ Simpson K, Day N, Trusler P (1993). Field Guide to the Birds of Australia. Ringwood, Victoria: Viking O'Neil. p. 392. ISBN 0-670-90478-3. 
28. ^ Kaplan, p. vii
29. ^ QNPWS (Queensland National Parks & Wildlife Service) (1993). Living with Wildlife:The Magpie. Brisbane: Department of Environment and Heritage, Queensland. 
30. ^ Higgins et al., p. 605
31. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 606
32. ^ Kaplan, p. 111
33. ^ Kaplan, p. 109
34. ^ Kaplan, p. 36
35. ^ Kaplan, p. 37
36. ^ Kaplan, p. 76
37. ^ Kaplan, p. 107
38. ^ Kaplan, p. 110
39. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 583
40. ^ Higgins et al., p. 584
41. ^ a b Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World: The worldwide history, distribution and influence of birds introduced to new environments. Terrey Hills, Sydney: Reed. p. 344. ISBN 0-589-50260-3. 
42. ^ a b Troup, Christina (20 November 2008). "Introduced land birds: Australian Magpie". Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Ministry for Culture & Heritage (New Zealand). http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheSettledLandscape/IntroducedPlantsAndAnimals/IntroducedLandBirds/6/mi. Retrieved on 2008-12-23. 
43. ^ Morgan, D, Waas, J, Innes, J (2006). "The relative importance of Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) as nest predators of rural birds in New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology 33: 17"?29. 
44. ^ Morgan D, Waas, J, Innes, J (2005). "Do territorial and non-breeding Australian Magpies Gymnorhina tibicen influence the local movements of rural birds in New Zealand?". Ibis 148 (2): 330"?42. 
45. ^ Higgins et al., p. 582
46. ^ Higgins et al., p. 585
47. ^ Kaplan, p. 25
48. ^ Kaplan, pp. 51"?52
49. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 587
50. ^ Kaplan, p. 51
51. ^ Kaplan, pp. 19"?20
52. ^ Kaplan, p. 91
53. ^ Kaplan, p. 81
54. ^ Kaplan, p. 82
55. ^ Brown ED, Veltman CJ (1987). "Ethogram of the Australian Magpie (Gymnorhina tibicen) in comparison to other Cracticidae and Corvus species". Ethology 76 (4): 309"?33. ISSN 0179-1613. 
56. ^ Higgins et al., p. 601
57. ^ a b Kaplan, p. 105
58. ^ Kaplan, p. 106
59. ^ Barker RD, Vestkens WJM (1990). Food of Australian Birds: Vol. 2 - Passerines. CSIRO. pp. 557. 
60. ^ Kaplan, pp. 23"?24
61. ^ Veltman CJ, Hickson RE (1989). "Predation by Australian magpies (Gymnorhina tibicen) on pasture invertebrates: are non-territorial birds less successful?". Australian Journal of Ecology 14 (3): 319"?26. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.1989.tb01440.x. 
62. ^ Higgins et al., p. 589
63. ^ Higgins et al., p. 590
64. ^ Kaplan, p. 48
65. ^ Beruldsen, G (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Qld: self. p. 373. ISBN 0-646-42798-9. 
66. ^ Kaplan, pp. 49"?51
67. ^ Higgins et al., p. 609
68. ^ Higgins et al., p. 610
69. ^ Kaplan, p. 64
70. ^ Kaplan, p. 66
71. ^ Kaplan, p. 65
72. ^ a b Higgins et al., p. 595
73. ^ Carrick, Robert (1972). "Population ecology of the Australian Black-backed Magpie, Royal Penguin, and Silver Gull". U S Dept Interior Res Report 2: 41"?99. 
74. ^ Kaplan, p. 53
75. ^ Jones, p. 37
76. ^ Jones, p. 38
77. ^ Jones, pp. 39"?40
78. ^ Jones, pp. 43"?44
79. ^ Jones, p. 48
80. ^ a b Jones, p. 52
81. ^ Kreisfeld, Renate (9 October 1997). "Injuries involving magpies". Research Centre for Injury Studies. Flinders University, Adelaide. http://www.nisu.flinders.edu.au/pubs/shortreps/magpies.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-14. 
82. ^ "Hazards: Magpies". Bicycle Queensland website. Bicycle Queensland. 2006. http://www.bq.org.au/cycle-info/hazards.shtml. Retrieved on 2008-10-14. 
83. ^ Jones, p. 104
84. ^ Jones, pp. 105"?06
85. ^ Jones, pp. 106"?07
86. ^ "Swooping birds". Bicycle Victoria website. Bicycle Victoria. 2008. http://www.bv.com.au/bikes-and-riding/10754. Retrieved on 2008-12-18. 
87. ^ Jones, Darryl N.; Thomas Nealson. "Management of aggressive Australian magpies by translocation". Wildlife Research 30 (2): 167"?77. doi:10.1071/WR01102 . 
88. ^ Jones, p. 119
89. ^ Jones, p. 115
90. ^ "www.legislation.sa.gov.au" (PDF). http://www.legislation.sa.gov.au/LZ/C/A/NATIONAL%20PARKS%20AND%20WILDLIFE%20ACT%201972/CURRENT/1972.56.UN.PDF. Retrieved on 2009-04-14. 
91. ^ Jones, p. 103
92. ^ Strategic Communications Unit, Department of the Premier and Cabinet (June 2003). "PC0008 - Use of the Piping Shrike". Department of the Premier and Cabinet Circular. Government of South Australia. http://www.premcab.sa.gov.au/pdf/circulars/Shrike1.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-10-14. 
93. ^ Department of the Premier and Cabinet (30 June 2008). "State Badge of South Australia". Department of the Premier and Cabinet Circular. Government of South Australia. http://www.premcab.sa.gov.au/emblems/shrike1.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-14. 
94. ^ Jones, p. viii
95. ^ a b Jones, p. vii
96. ^ "The Beginning: Part One". Official Website of the Collingwood Football Club. AFL. 25 September, 2002. http://www.afl.com.au/collingwoodfc/Season2007/News/NewsArticle/tabid/5586/newsId/2295/default.aspx. Retrieved on 2008-10-14. 
97. ^ Lyon K, Shiell A, McDonald B (May 27 2003). "Port, Pies in black-and-white blue". The Age. John Fairfax Holdings. http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/05/26/1053801337727.html. Retrieved on 2008-10-17. 
98. ^ "Glenorchy District Football Club - Brief History". Official Glenorchy District Football Club website. self. 2008. http://glenorchyfootballclub.com.au/brief-history.php. Retrieved on 2008-10-17. 
99. ^ Troup, Christina (2008-11-20). "Introduced land birds: Footrot Flats cartoon". Introduced land birds. Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheSettledLandscape/IntroducedPlantsAndAnimals/IntroducedLandBirds/6/ENZ-Resources/Standard/3/mi. Retrieved on 2008-12-23.